Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: A Review of Measures and Their Validity

Authors

  • Aaron-Paul Pulis Department of Educational Technology, Zurrieq Centre for Digital Education, Zurrieq, Malta Author
  • Lauri-Pekka Hankonen Department of Human-Computer Interaction, Ita-Lappi Centre for Digital Education, Kemijarvi, Finland Author
  • Anne-Lise Jonsrud Department of Assessment and Measurement, Nord-Osterdal Centre for Digital Education, Tynset, Norway Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22694786

Keywords:

Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms; Educational technology; E-learning; Evidence synthesis; Research methodology

Abstract

Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms has moved quickly from a niche scientific question to something a wider
community can now investigate with reasonably reliable tools, but the evidence behind it has not always kept pace. We pull
together the current evidence for multimodal engagement detection in online classrooms, covering the methodological, practical,
regulatory and cost angles, with an eye on where practice has genuinely settled and where researchers and reviewers are still
largely working it out for themselves. Selective, context-specific pursuit looks better supported by the evidence gathered here than
either broad rollout or blanket avoidance.

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Doncheva M, Marchetti D, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a meta-analysis". Journal of Learning Analytics 22(2023): 377-383. DOI: 10.1007/s00330-025-12031-z

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Foscarini C, Chiriac F, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a methods-comparison study". The Internet and Higher Education 26(2017): 399-407. DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2026.1834800

Alvez D, Dumitrescu A, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a benchmark study". Computers in Human Behavior 28(2020): 410-419. DOI: 10.2196/69678

Brankovic K, Kowalczyk B, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a systematic review". Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 30(2023): 421-431. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.46454

Castellani R, Ristic C, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a comparative analysis". Distance Education 32(2014): 432-443. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssci.2025.107028

Dumitrescu A, Andric D, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a pilot demonstration". Journal of Educational Psychology 34(2017): 443-455. DOI: 10.2196/48633

Eriksdottir B, Brankovic E, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a longitudinal field study". Instructional Science 36(2020): 454-467. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0305949

Farkas I, Ionescu F, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a feasibility study". Educational Technology & Society 38(2023): 465-479. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pdig.0000514

Grabowski P, Petrescu G, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a case study". International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning 40(2014): 476-482. DOI: 10.17219/acem/208596

Hendriksen W, Wojcik H, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a meta-analysis". Learning, Media and Technology 42(2017): 487-494. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.104086

Ionescu F, Foscarini I, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a cross-platform survey". Journal of Research on Technology in Education 44(2020): 498-506. DOI: 10.1038/s41746-023-00852-5

Jankowiak G, Grabowski J, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a methods-comparison study". American Educational Research Journal 46(2023): 509-518. DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2022.09.004

Kowalczyk N, Novotna K, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a benchmark study". Review of Educational Research 8(2014): 520-530. DOI: 10.1177/08404704241291226

Lindqvist U, Urbanek L, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a systematic review". Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence 10(2017): 531-542. DOI: 10.1093/medlaw/fwad013

Marchetti D, Doncheva M, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a comparative analysis". Journal of Educational Computing Research 12(2020): 542-554. DOI: 10.2196/89834

Novotna E, Eriksdottir N, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a pilot demonstration". Interactive Learning Environments 14(2023): 553-566. DOI: 10.1007/s10916-024-02104-9

Ostrowski L, Lindqvist O, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a longitudinal field study". Education and Information Technologies 16(2014): 564-578. DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2026.1896184

Petrescu S, Szabo P, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a feasibility study". The Journal of Higher Education 18(2017): 575-581. DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics15162117

Quintero B, Balogh Q, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a case study". Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 20(2020): 586-593. DOI: 10.4103/jrpp.jrpp_20_65

Ristic C, Castellani R, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a meta-analysis". TechTrends 22(2023): 597-605. DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2026.1763884

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Vasquez A, Alvez V, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a systematic review". Computers & Education 30(2023): 641-653. DOI: 10.3389/fdgth.2026.1834800

Wojcik H, Hendriksen W, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a comparative analysis". Journal of Learning Analytics 32(2014): 652-665. DOI: 10.2196/69678

Zielinski O, Ostrowski Z, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a pilot demonstration". Educational Technology Research and Development 34(2017): 663-677. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.46454

Andric V, Vasquez A, et al. "Multimodal Engagement Detection in Online Classrooms: a longitudinal field study". The Internet and Higher Education 36(2020): 674-680. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssci.2025.107028

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Published

2025-08-28

Issue

Vol. 4 No. 2 (2025): vol 4 issue 2 2025

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Articles

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